Detection of Low Level Sex Chromosome Mosaicism

Detection of Low Level Sex Chromosome Mosaicism Abstract Turner syndrome (TS) is most commonly due to a 45,X chromosome defect, but is also seen in patients with a variety of X-chromosome abnormalities or 45,X/46,XY mosaicism. The phenotype of TS patients is highly variable, and depends largely on the karyotype. Patients are at an increased risk of gonadoblastoma when a Y derived chromosome or chromosome fragment is present. Since constitutional mosaicism is present in approximately 50% of TS patients, the identification of minor cell populations is clinically important and a challenge to laboratories. Aim: The purpose of the present study was the application of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay to identify low level mosaicism for an XY or XX cell population for TS patients with monosomy X and also to identify the nature of sex chromosome markers detected by conventional cytogenetic studies. Methods: The study included 65 female patients with a clinical suspicion of TS, they were selected from the Genetic Clinic, Medical Research Institute, University of Alexandria. Chromosome analysis by G-banding technique was done. FISH was performed using centromere probes for the X and Y chromosomes. Results: Chromosome analysis by G-banding technique revealed the following results: twenty patients (30.77%) had a 45,X karyotype; mosaicism for a second normal or structurally abnormal X was observed in 27 (41.54%) cases, mosaicism for Y chromosome in 5 (7.69%) cases, 7 (10.77) had mosaicism involving a marker chromosome; and non mosaic structural abnormalities of the X chromosome was present in 6 (9.23%) patients.To further investigate the possibility of mosaicism in the 20 patients with an apparently nonmosaic 45,X karyotype, and to identify the nature of chromosome markers in the 7 patients carrying a marker, FISH was performed using centromere probes for the X and Y chromosomes. A minor XX cell line was identified in 6 patients, XY mosaicism were identified in 3 cases and the 45, X result was confirmed in 11 samples. FISH analysis performed on the 7 patients with chromosome markers, identified the origin of these markers as X chromosome material in 3 patients, and Y-derived chro mosome in 4 patients (idic Y with a double hybridization signal corresponding to double centromeric region). Conclusion: FISH is a useful tool in the detection of low frequency cell lines and identification of the nature of unknown chromosome markers that have important implications for the management of patients with Turner syndrome. FISH as an adjunct to karyotype analysis provides a sensitive, specific, rapid, and informative technique to identify sex chromosome mosaicism in TS patients. Key Words: Turner syndrome, monosomy X, mosaicism, 46, XY cell line, gonadoblastoma. INTRODUCTION The incidence of Turner syndrome (TS) is approximately one in 3,000 newborn girls and is associated with an apparently nonmosaic 45, X karyotype in many of these patients.(1) Based on chromosome analysis 30%-50% are mosaic with  a second X or a structurally abnormal X, and  fewer than 10% of TS patients have mosaicism with a 46, XY cell population or a Y chromosome rearrangement. The mosaic status of the remaining TS patients remains uncertain but of clinical interest because if they do have cells with a Y chromosome or Y-derived fragment, they may have an increased risk of gonadoblastoma.(2) Because a 45, X karyotype usually causes fetal death, it has been postulated that all liveborn 45,X infants must be mosaic with either a Y or a second X in some cells.(3) The hypothesis of the necessity of mosaicism for survival is supported by the argument for the existence of a feto-protective effect of one or more genes on the sex chromosomes (X or Y). According to this concept, two copies of the gene(s) should be present, either in the fetus or in the extra-embryonic tissues.(4) Both, embryonic mortality and the Turner phenotype, are considered to be a result of monosomy of a common gene (s) of the X and Y chromosomes. It is assumed that, in women, these genes are expressed in both active and inactive X chromosomes as a means of ensuring the right quantity of genetic product.(5) The American College of Medical Genetics recommends cytogenetic analysis of 30 metaphase cells to rule out sex chromosome mosaicism.(6) This analysis can identify 10% mosaicism with  a confidence level of 95% but a more sensitive  level of detection requires analysis of many more metaphase cells, which is costly. PCR-based assays have been used to identify low-level mosaicism.(7) Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using X and Y chromosome probes has been validated (8) as a reflex test in apparently nonmosaic 45,X individuals to identify low-level mosaicism.(2,9) One of the advantages of applying the FISH technique is the possibility of studying mosaicism in both interphase nuclei and metaphases.(5) The purpose of the present study was to show the value of FISH analysis to identify low level sex chromosome mosaicism in Turner syndrome with nonmosaic monosomy X, and also to identify the nature of marker chromosomes detected by conventional cytogenetic studies. METHODS The study included 65 patients with clinical features suggestive of TS, they were selected from the out patient clinic, Human Genetics Department, Medical Research Institute, University of Alexandria over a period of 4 years. Chromosomes were prepared according to standard techniques for culturing lymphocytes from peripheral blood, and the preparation was treated with trypsin to obtain G-banding.(10) A minimum of 30 metaphases were analysed, and 3 were photographed for each patient. FISH analysis using the classic alpha-satellite probes for the X [DXZ1] and Y [DYZ3] centromeres (CEP-X and CEP-Y, Vysis Inc., spectrum green hybridizes to the centromere of human chromosome X, and spectrum orange hybridizes to the centromere of human chromosome Y) was performed in cases with nonmosaic 45, X karyotype to detect low level sex chromosome mosaicism and also in cases with chromosome markers to identify the nature of these markers. The protocol followed was that provided by the manufacturer. The normal cutoff was determined to be 1.0% for a second X signal and 0.6% for a Y signal in analysis of 500 interphase cells. (11) Whenever interphase FISH analysis revealed evidence of a second cell population, a search was undertaken using FISH for metaphase cells to confirm its presence and examine the structure of the sex chromosomes in that population. FISH was performed in the Genetic Center, Genetic Counseling Society, Alexandria. Statistical analysis: Data were presented in the form of frequency and percentages. RESULTS Based on G-banded chromosome analysis of a minimum of 30 metaphase cells for the 65 patients included in this study, 45,X karyotype was found in 20 cases (30.77%), various mosaic complements was detected in 39 (60%), and non mosaic structural abnormalities of the X chromosome in 6 (9.23%) (table I). Mosaicism detected were as follow: 8 (12.31%) with numerical mosaicism involving  the X chromosome, 19 (29.23%) with structural mosaicism of the X chromosome, 5 (7.69%) with Y chromosome mosaicism, and 7 (10.77%) with mosaicism involving a marker chromosome, the level of mosaicism ranged from 8% to 86%. FISH analysis, using centromere probes for the X and Y chromosomes, identified mosaicism with a second X chromosome in 6 of the 20 patients with an apparently non-mosaic 45,X karyotype. The level of mosaicism detected ranged from 3.8% to 8.2%. Mosaicism with a Y chromosome was detected  in 3 patients, the level of mosaicism ranged from 2.4% to 7.2% (table II) (figure1). FISH improved the identification of mosaicism from 60% (39/65) to about 73.85% (48/65). FISH analysis performed on the 7 patients with chromosome markers, identified the nature of these markers as X chromosome material in 3 patients, and Y-derived chromosome in 4 patients (idic Y with a double hybridization signal corresponding to double centromeric region) (table III). FISH highlighted the differences between the initial diagnosis, based on G-banding, and the final diagnosis, determined by specific probes for the  X and Y chromosomes. FISH analysis detected  more Y-chromosomal material than karyotyping (18.46% (12/65) vs. 7.69% (5/65), respectively), and also detected more X-chromosomal mosaicism among the TS patients (55.38% (36/65) vs. 41.54% (27/65), respectively). Clinical, ultrasound and laparoscopic examination of gonads in patients with Y chromosome material revealed normal females with bilateral rudimentary streak gonads in 9 patients and females with clitoromegaly, unilateral streak gonads, and contralateral intraabdominal testis in 3 patients. Interphase cells showing one green signal of the X chromosome Interphase cell showing 2 green signals for X chromosome Interphase cell with one green signal for X chromosome and one red signal for Y chromosome Metaphase cell with one green signal for X chromosome and one red signal for Y chromosome DISCUSSION An estimated 1 in 50 conceptuses is affected with TS. However, only 1% of TS conceptuses survive to birth. It has been observed that there is a higher ratio of mosaic karyotypes to monosomy X in live births compared to aborted fetuses. This finding has led to speculation that most if not all patients born with TS must have mosaicism.(3) Phenotypic expression in TS patients largely depends on the karyotype, and identification of  sex chromosome mosaicism plays a key role in clinical management. Patients with documented mosaicism for a 46, XX or duplication of the  long arm have a moderate phenotype. Mental retardation is seen more frequently in patients with a small ring chromosome and deletion of the X-inactivation center (XIST).(12) Patients with a Y or Y-derived chromosome identified by routine  G-banding analysis may have as high as a 30%  risk of developing gonadoblastoma, although  most reports suggest an incidence of 7%-  10%. Therefore, identification of low level  Y chromosome mosaicism is also clinically important.(13)   Out of the 65 patients included in the present study, 45, X karyotype was found in 20 cases (30.77%), various mosaic complements was  detected in 39 (60%), and non mosaic structural abnormalities of the X chromosome in 6 (9.23%). Previous studies reported constitutional mosaicism in approximately 50% of TS patients based on chromosome analysis.(14) The detection of mosaicism is mainly influenced by the type and number of tissues analysed, the number of cells studied, and the sensitivity of the techniques applied.(4,5,15) FISH analysis of the 20 patients with 45, X karyotype included in the present study detected mosaicism in 9 patients: 6 had an XX cell line, and  3 had Y chromosome material. Therefore, FISH improved the identification of mosaicism from 60% to about 73.85%. Van Dyke and Wiktor (11) reported that FISH analysis improves the identification of mosaicism from 55% to 67% in patients with nonmosaic 45,X karyotype.They concluded that the identification of a cell population with a second X chromosome is sufficient to exclude, with a high degree of confidence, the presence of a Y-bearing cell population in that patient. Other investigators compared the results of lymphocyte G-banded karyotype with the use of interphase X/Y FISH analysis. They detected more Y-chromosomal matrial by FISH than karyotyping (in 15% vs. 11% of the women, respectively) and also detected more X-chromosomal mosaicism among the TS women (in 70% vs. 45% of the women respectively). They suggested the use of X/Y interpha se FISH as a complement to karyotyping in order to obtain a more complete knowledge of the chromosome constitution of each individuals with TS.(16) The Y-chromosomal material in TS individuals  is often present in the form of small marker chromosomes, which are difficult to positively identify by routine karyotyping. Furthermore, small markers are frequently missed altogether using  this technique, especially if limited numbers of metaphases are evaluated.(17) In the present  study, 7 (10.77%) patients were detected with mosaicism involving a marker chromosome, FISH analysis identified the origin of these markers as X chromosome material in 3 patients, and Y-derived chromosome in 4 patients, the nature of the Y chromosome was defined as isodicentric with  two centromeres. Approximately 20% of mosaic patients with TS have a sex marker chromosome.(14) The use of fluorescence in situ hybridization  (FISH) analysis has been well documented as  being effective in detecting and identifying sex chromosome markers.(18,19,20) In the present study, final diagnosis followed G-banding and FISH analysis identified Y-bearing cell population in approximately 18% of TS patients. Review of the literature suggested that 6-12% of patients with TS had 45,X/46,XY cell lines with  or without structurally abnormal Y.(21) This variation is a reflection of the numbers of patients studied,  the technique used, and the strategies employed  by different investigators to search for small populations of Y containing cells. Virilization with clitoromegaly was found in  3 cases in the present study with Y cell line mosaicism. It is believed that virilization in patients with TS is due to the presence of Y cell line within the gonad even if the Y cell line is not identified in peripheral blood. Therefore, virilization is an indication for detailed studies looking for the presence of Y mosaicism. (22) Early detection of Y-derived material in the genome of TS individuals is of great importance because of the relative high risk (10-30%) of developing gonadal tumors (i.e., gonadoblastoma or dysgerminoma).(23,24) Gonadoblastoma is a precursor tumor which may undergo malignant transformation into one of the virulent germ cell neoplasms (dysgerminoma, embryonal carcinoma, endodermal sinus tumor, chorioepithelioma or yolk sac tumor).(21) It has been suggested that a locus (GBY) predisposing to the development of this tumor is located in the pericentromeric region of Yp.(25) Although the natural history of gonadoblastoma in prepubertal patients is unknown, this tumor can be evident even in the first decade of life in streak gonads with Y mosaicism and may be bilateral. Therefore, prophylactic gonadectomy should  be recommended in patients with TS and Y chromosome mosaicism, because fertility is not an issue, surgical morbidity is minor, and the potential for malignant transformation is unknown.(26) If a patient declines gonadectomy, monitoring for germ cell neoplasm is the only option. However,  it is unclear whether methods in common use  today (vaginal ultrasound, biochemical markers, proteomics, etc.), even with compliant patients,  are able to identify germ cell neoplasms at early enough stages to improve the natural history of the disease. It is possible that a predictable and specific marker of malignant potential may be identified in the future. Until then, physicians will need to be continually updated on these important issues as they relate to the clinical management of patients with Turner syndrome.(21) In conclusion, FISH for the X and Y centromere probes is a useful adjunct to conventional cytogenetic studies in patients with apparently nonmosaic monosomy X. This additional assay improved the identification of mosaicism from 60% to about 73.85%. FISH method provides a sensitive, specific, rapid, and informative means of identifying low level X and Y mosaicism in TS patients, and can be employed on the same blood sample that is used for the conventional cytogenetic studies. FISH helped in identifying the nature of the unknown markers which has an important implication in the development of gonadal tumors. Metaphase FISH, and interphase FISH should complement and validate each other in the detection of covert Y and identification of rearranged X vs Y chromosomes.

jackie robinson :: essays research papers

The Immigration Act of 1924 declared this, â€Å"the number of each nationality who may be admitted annually is limited to 2 per cent of the population of such nationality resident in the united states according to the census of 1890† (A). There are many reasons why this was passed. Those Reasons being; the loss of American jobs, the inability to easily assimilate immigrants, and the prejudice of the groups and people of the time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One reason for the passing of the Immigration Act of 1924 is the loss of American jobs. Immigrants of the time came to the United States looking to increase his lot in life, to become a better more wealthier man. â€Å"The standard of living of the working classes of the United States has been and still is superior to that of the nations which have furnished the bulk of the immigrants† (C). The only problem with the immigrants coming to America to work was the fact that there simply was not enough jobs for both the unemployed American workers and the immigrants. This causes a problem for the Americans as the immigrants take lower wages than that of the average worker. Naturally the business owners will hire the cheaper labor thus leaving the American worker unemployed. Many labor organizations such as the American Federation of Labor and the Junior Order of United American Mechanists (H) backed the act for just this reason; American jobs were going to immig rants fresh off the boat.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The immigrants getting these ‘American jobs’ were not, and did not in some cases want to be easily assimilated. â€Å"These alien peoples are temperamentally and racially unfitted for easy assimilation; that they are living in an age two or three centuries behind ours. They are white, they can read a few lines, and they have a few dollars - so in they come. We need three generations to educate, to crossbreed with Western strains and to assimilate a large number of those that we have here now† (F). Education seemed not to be the only problem. Many educated second generations immigrant men were still, racially and temperamentally, part of their nationality. Therefore the conclusion of this is that the United States needs to limit the amount of immigrants it lets in every day, week, month, and year. â€Å"The rank and file of these unassimilated aliens still live mentally in the ghetto or as peasants on the great estates.

National Cranberry Cooperative Essay

Fill in your name in the header. Please read the Course Syllabus for guidelines on collaboration in assignments: Below, write your answers to Guiding Questions 1-4. The case is due at the beginning of class on January 29 (Wednesday). Please submit only one document per group. We will discuss the answers in class. You may want to print out your answers and charts for your reference during the class discussion. Some additional information about National Cranberry follows. Not necessarily all of this information is relevant to your answers. You may assume that: On an average â€Å"busy† day 18,000 bbl arrive over the 12-hr period (7 am to 7 pm). This is based on a typical busy day in September. The process is approximately a â€Å"continuous flow† type. Wet berries are 75% of all berries. Holding bins 17-24 are dedicated to wet berries. Capacity of the dumpers is 3,000 bbl / hr (it takes on average 7.5 minutes to dump a truck, a truck holds on average 75 bbl so, from Little’s Law, each dumper will take 600 bbl/hr). Drivers are paid $10/hr. Rates for other employees are given in the case. If you need to make additional assumptions to answer a question, clearly state them, logically defend them, and then proceed to answer the question accordingly. Questions 1.Analyze the current process. Using the process flow map (given below) of the current process at Receiving Plant No. 1 (RP1), mark the capacity and utilization of each of the resources. Show the flows of wet and dry berries separately. On an average busy day, 18,000 bbl arrive over the 12-hr period. Thus, we can say that 1,500 bbl arrive every hour. Since 75% of the berries are wet berries, 1,125 bbl of wet berries and 375 bbl of dry berries arrive every hour. These berries are dumped into 5 Kiwanee Dumpers that take 600 bbls per hour each. And then, dry berries and wet berries are divided. Dry berries go into bins 1 to 16 and wet berries go into bins 17-27. Since bins 1 to 24 have capacity of 250 bbls/hr and bins 25 to 27 have 400 bbls/hr, bins 1 to 16 have capacity of 4,000 bbls/hr total, while bins 17-27 have capacity of 3,200 bbls/hr total. Dry berries are sent to 3 destoners, each  of which has a capacity of 1,500 bbls/hr. There is only one dechaffer for dry berries, and therefore has a capacity of 1,500 bbls/hr. However, the other two dechaffers are assigned to wet berries. Since each dechaffer has a capacity of 1,500 bbls/hr, two dechaffers have a capacity of 3,000 bbls/hr for wet berries. Then, these wet berries go into the dryer, which as a capacity of 600 bbls/hr total. After these processes, the berries arrive at separators, which has a maximum capacity of 1,200 bbls/hr. We assumed that all the processes start at 7 a.m. and identified that the dryers for the wet berries are the bottleneck because dryers have the lowest capacity. (Please note that the filled process flow map is given below) 2.On a busy day, what is RP1’s current maximum throughput rate? As we show in the process flow map below: Demand rate = 1,500 bbl / hr (375 for dry berries and 1,125 for wet berries) Capacity rate = 975 bbl / hr (375 for dry berries and 600 for wet berries, because the bottleneck, which is dryer of capacity 600 bbl / hr, determines the capacity of a linear process) That is, Demand rate > Capacity rate, and in this scenario throughput rate = Capacity rate = 975 bbl / hr 3.Assuming that all of the operations at RP1 start at 7 am on a â€Å"busy† day, present the situation during such a day, by constructing an inventory build-up diagram for bins and trucks. For trucks: For bins: 4.What are the possible capital investments considered by NCC? Quantify the costs and benefits of three of them: the fifth Kiwanee dumper purchased in 1980, and two other investments. What recommendations would you make to Mr. Schaeffer? Please be ready to discuss in class other factors that might influence your recommendations to NCC. Two other possible capital investments considered by NCC would be the installing a light meter system for color grading and hiring a full-time skilled operator at the same pay grade as the chief berry receiver, and adding more dryers that cost $60,000 each. First of all, purchasing a light meter and hiring an operator would reduce large amount of unnecessary cost incurred from cranberries that are misidentified by the chief berry receiver. The case reports that half of  450,000 bbls of berries were misidentified as No.3. Since $1.50 was paid for every No.3 berries, we can say that $337,500 was overpaid. Assuming that the cost of this system is about $40,000 and the cost of full-time skilled operator is about $34,944 (as a straight-time pay rate for the full-year employee) per year, we can calculate the return on investment in the light meter system. The return would be 4.503 ($337,500/$74,944). Even though, the operator gets paid more than the amount above, the return on the investment would still be positive. Secondly, purchasing one additional dryer would cost $60,000. Then, the process capacity would increase to 800 bbls/hr. The dry berries (375bbls/hr) and the wet berries (800bbls/hr) would now sum up to 1175 bbls/hr, which will increase the utilization rate of separators to 97.91%. The resulting increase in flow rate could reduce the overtime labor as much as $78,000 (assuming 12,000 over time hours of all workers * $6.5/hr) and the return on the investment would be 0.3 (18,000/60,000). Thirdly, purchasing the fifth Kiwanee Dumper had increased the capacity by 600 bbls/hr. However, the fact that throughput rate is 975 bbls/hr, and the hourly incoming berries are about 1500 bbls/hr, we do not think that the fifth dumper was necessary because with four dumpers we would have a capacity of 2400 bbls/hr, which is enough as of current state. In other words, since the bottlen eck of the process is the dryer rather than the dumper, we would have saved $200,000 if we did not buy the fifth dumper. Last thing to note is that none of the utilization rate got higher after purchasing the fifth dumper. Since the first two investments listed above have positive returns, we definitely think Mr. Schaeffer should invest in purchasing a light meter and an additional dryer. Even though purchasing additional dryer does not return greater than purchasing a light meter, purchasing additional dryer still returns positive value and therefore, should choose to invest on these three options to manage the extra capital that NCC would spend. However, Mr.Schaeffer could have been better off with not purchasing the fifth dumper because dumper’s capacity was already large enough that the efficiency remained the same with purchasing the fifth dumper. (For the values such as total over time hours and etc, we assumed based on the data given in the case at the last section called Scheduling the Work Force)

The Recession-Proof Beauty of Healthcare Jobs

The Recession-Proof Beauty of Healthcare Jobs In a recent Time magazine article that highlighted â€Å"The 5 Best Jobs You’ve Never Heard Of,† a remarkable four out of five were linked to the healthcare industry. In fact, healthcare jobs remain plentiful - even in the face of economic uncertainty. Let’s take a closer look at this phenomenon, along with which positions can expect to see particularly noteworthy growth in the years ahead. The State of HealthcareAccording to the most recent â€Å"Employment Situation Summary† from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, healthcare continued its juggernaut of job growth, adding 22,000 jobs in March 2015 alone. This brought the 12-month total to an additional 363,000, with ambulatory healthcare services and hospitals making particularly strong showings.A number of factors have contributed to this growth, including rising demand, retiring workers, and the ever-growing advancement of science and medicine requiring skilled technologists.No discussion of the chan ging face of healthcare is complete without acknowledging the massive impact of the aging Baby Boomer generation. Approximately 10,000 Baby Boomers turn 65 every day, and will continue to do so for the next 14 years. By 2030, meanwhile, nearly 20 percent of the U.S. population will be of retirement age.Not only does this represent a massive outflux of workers from healthcare positions, but it also constitutes a significant burden: the typical American over the age of 65 suffers from a number of chronic conditions, including hypertension, diabetes, heart disease and cancer. Research further indicates that just five years from now, 5.6 million new healthcare jobs will exist in everything from pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing to nursing, community, and home healthcare facilities and services.Add in the increased number of insured Americans due to healthcare reform, and the need for more healthcare professionals becomes even more critical.Where the Jobs AreAccording to the Bure au of Labor Statistics â€Å"Job Outlook† breakdown, the average anticipated growth rate for all occupations between 2012 and 2022 is 11 percent. U.S. News and World Report highlighted the top health care positions by Job Outlook,  including the following:Personal Care Aide: 48.8 percentHome Health Aide: 48.5 percentDiagnostic Medical Sonographer: 46 percentOccupational Therapy Assistant: 42.6 percentPhysical Therapist Assistant: 41 percentEsthetician: 39.8 percentPhysician Assistant: 38.4 percentMedical Secretary: 36 percentPhysical Therapist: 36 percentNurse Practitioner: 33.7 percentIn addition to these positions, emotional health professionals, including substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors and marriage and family therapists, are also expected to see significant gains in job openings due to declines in stigmas which previously prevented people from seeking help.Other healthcare jobs which will continue to be in demand include dentists, dental hygienists, p hysicians, pharmacists, medical equipment repairers, dieticians and nutritionists, radiologic technologists, epidemiologists, and opticians.If a challenging career which allows you to help people while also experiencing unprecedented job security sounds like a good fit to you, there are plenty of healthcare positions to choose from.

Pyrrhic Victory - Origin of the Term

Pyrrhic Victory - Origin of the Term A Pyrrhic victory is a type of win that actually inflicts so much destruction on the victorious side that it is basically tantamount to defeat. A side that wins a Pyrrhic victory is considered ultimately victorious, but the tolls suffered, and the future impact those tolls, work to negate the feeling of actual achievement. This is sometimes referred to as a ‘hollow victory’. Examples: For instance, in the world of sports, if team A defeats team B in a regular season game, but team A loses its best player to a season-ending injury during the game, that would be considered a Pyrrhic victory. Team A won the current contest, however losing their best player for the remainder of the season would take away from any actual feeling of accomplishment or achievement that the team would typically feel after a victory. Another example could be drawn from the battlefield. If side A defeats side B in a particular battle, but loses a high number of its forces in the battle, that would be considered a Pyrrhic victory. Yes, side A won the particular battle, but the casualties suffered will have severe negative effects from Side A going forward, detracting from the overall feeling of victory. This situation is commonly referred to as â€Å"winning the battle but losing the war.† Origin The phrase Pyrrhic victory originates from King Pyrrhus of Epirus, who in 281 B.C., suffered the original Pyrrhic victory. King Pyrrhus landed on the southern Italian shore with twenty elephants and 25,000-30,000 soldiers ready to defend their fellow Greek speakers (in Tarentum of Magna Graecia) against advancing Roman domination. Pyrrhus won the first two battles that he participated in upon arrival on the southern Italian shore (at Heraclea in 280 BC and at Asculum in 279 BC). However, throughout the course of those two battles, he lost a very high number of his soldiers. With his numbers cut drastically, King Pyrrhus’s army became too thin to last, and they eventually ended up losing the war. In both of his victories over the Romans, the Roman side suffered more casualties than Pyrrhus’ side did. But, the Romans also had a much larger army to work with, and thus their casualties meant less to them than Pyrrhus’s did to his side. The term Pyrrhic victory comes from these devastating battles. Greek historian Plutarch described King Pyrrhus’s victory over the Romans in his Life of Pyrrhus: â€Å"The armies separated; and, it is said, Pyrrhus replied to one that gave him joy of his victory that one other such victory would utterly undo him. For he had lost a great part of the forces he brought with him, and almost all his particular friends and principal commanders; there were no others there to make recruits, and he found the confederates in Italy backward. On the other hand, as from a fountain continually flowing out of the city, the Roman camp was quickly and plentifully filled up with fresh men, not at all abating in courage for the loss they sustained, but even from their very anger gaining new force and resolution to go on with the war.†

Whether underdevelopment is a consequence of colonial legacy Essay

Whether underdevelopment is a consequence of colonial legacy - Essay Example Whether underdevelopment is a consequence of colonial legacy? Superior technologies had enabled the colonial powers to seize control and many of the social processes of the western colonial powers were implanted into the colonies via missionary schools, army barracks, hospitals and local government structures which reported back to the colonial metropolis. It has been pointed out that in the later colonial phase, these colonial territories, despite efforts to make them into effective satellite states with government from a distance, suffered three main disadvantages: the administration had divided loyalties between the metropolis and the colony, it was alien and could not understand the needs of the colonised people, and because of its alien nature it lacked legitimacy and the ability fully to engage the local people in concerted and planned efforts. The governments of colonies tended to be conservative, and lacked the will to make progress. This affected both the higher echelons which had ties to the colonist country, and the subordinated loca l people. It is this enforced stagnation and apathy that is perhaps one of the most potent elements of the colonial legacy, and it provoked reactions ranging from violent struggle to exploitative imitation in middle years of the twentieth century as newly independent states set about connecting with their pre-colonial past and building a new post-colonial future. This paper examines the link between under-development and colonialism, looking at two countries in particular: Mauritania, which is a former French colony located in North West Africa, and India which is a former British colony located in Asia, and at some overarching effects which apply to both examples. Definitions of Underdevelopment Before turning to the examination of the two sample countries, it is important to be clear what is meant by the terms â€Å"development† and â€Å"underdevelopment†. For most people these words are related to economic and political factors like wealth, and a stable, well-gover ned society but some analysts, such as Sen (1994) include intangible qualities such as freedom of choice and the fostering of all kinds of human capabilities through education, travel and the flourishing of local and international cultures. A good definition of development is that it â€Å"seeks to enable people to lead full, productive, satisfying and worthwhile lives by raising their incomes and improving other components of their standard of living such as life expectancy, health, literacy, control over their own destiny, personal libertay and freedom , and as essential steps for fulfilling human rights† (Arimah, 2004, p. 400). The term underdevelopment, in the light of these wider definition, therefore means much more than widespread poverty and economic weakness, and embraces also social and cultural deficits which impact negatively on the quality of life of the population. Mauritania Fifteen of the 20 poorest countries in the world are on the African continent, (Arimah, 2004) and since this is also the continent which has most thoroughly suffered the ravages of colonial exploitation, there is a deep suspicion that the underdevelopment that we see today and the past colonial history may be causally connected. There is some debate in the literature about whether the so-called â€Å"scramble for Africa† was motivated by strategic/military considerations, or by economic

Crisis Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Crisis Management - Essay Example While security cover is definitely essential for public figures, it cannot be implemented at the cost of inconvenience to other public. The essential concept of security cover needs to be based on preventive strategy which also caters sufficiently for abnormal and emergency security conditions. Security cordon needs to ensure prevention of carriage of arms in close vicinity of the dignitary, visible and invisible security protection in two or three security tiers, traveling to be undertaken in protected convoys, deceptive actions like frequent alternative routes, frequent rotation of dignitary in convoy vehicles, medical evacuation facilities and other such measures as described below: Security Cordon. Visible elements like uniformed and civilian clothed security guards should form a cordon in two or three tiers with bullet-proof jackets around the dignitary during all his movements in public areas. Metal detectors and physical check-up of people likely to come into close proximity with the dignitary should also be undertaken to prevent anyone carrying arms with an intention of harm. Travel. The dignitary is to travel in a convoy of three vehicles with his seating to be decided at last moment. An ambulance with necessary medical and emergency equipment is to join as the fourth vehicle. 02 armed guards are to be present in all the three vehicles. As far as possible, he is to be carried in a bullet-proof car. Three routes are to be pre-decided out of which one is to be chosen at the last moment. Public Appearances. Efforts have to focus on proactive prevention techniques by developing ways to identify and neutralize people who pose a threat to the dignitary. Essentially, this would involve cordoning off the immediate area to the extent possible with facilities for observation from elevated towers, preventing carriage of arms to the meetings, identifying and preventing individuals with past known criminal record from entering the area, take assistance from all law-enforcing agencies in achieving such precautions to the extent possible and ensure his safety in public places with or without use of force. Meeting the Press. Most dignitaries love to meet press and show their security-be-damned attitudes for sake of cheap popularity. Security personnel have to accomplish their duty in spite of these conditions. The press members should be thoroughly sensitized regarding security threats to the dignitary. Further, the press members have to be clearly identifiable and preferably segregated from the public to interact with our dignitary. The dignitary should also be advised of the measures undertaken by us and requested to cooperate by not breaking the security cordon. If possible, an organized press conference should be arranged at an appropriate closed in-house location than publicly. Medical. A competent medical attendant duly cleared by security agencies for his clean and reliable background record with all necessary emergency equipment is to follow the convoy in the ambulance. A specialist doctor should remain on emergency call during the entire duration. Protection Plan for Residence. Security arrangements at residence would involve the following: a. A well laid-out security cordon to block any miscreant from entering the residence. b. Regular patrolling of all vulnerable points along the residence. c. Scanning and keeping a watchful eye on all incoming visitors including employees at